Metacognition: Becoming a Critic Of Your Thinking, Thinking about thinking.

In order to think critically well, our thinking itself needs to be thought out. We must think about our thinking. Critical thinking is the disciplined art of ensuring that the best thinking is used to the extent that one is capable of in any set of circumstances. Critical thinking is a practical art. There can be nothing more practical than  thinking critically. Metacognition is the process of thinking about our thinking. It is the reflection of the processes of how we think. As such thinking about our thinking is just as important as our thinking. 

In any situation in life, whatever circumstances we are in or are facing, no matter where we are, we would be better of and in an advantageous stage if we are skilled in thinking critically.

The general part of critical thinking is trying to understand the situation, circumstances and conditions of a problem.

We can ask the following question when we are confronted with a problem: What is really going on in this or that situation? Do they care about me? Are they trying to take advantage of me? What are the consequences of failing to that?

The daily work of thinking critically is responding successfully to the above questions. In order to answer questions successfully we must maximise the quality of thinking. Well, we can do this by making the learning of thinking a priority. We must learn to become effective critics of our own thinking. 

In order to maximise the effectiveness of our thinking we must ask ourselves the following series of unusual questions:

A. What have you learnt about how you think?

B. What do you know about how your mind processes information?

C. What do you really know about how to analyse, evaluate, or reconstruct your thinking?

D. Where does your thinking come from?

E. How much of your thinking is of high quality?

F. How much of your thinking is of poor quality?

G. How much of your thinking is vague, muddled, inconsistent, inaccurate, illogical, or superficial?

H. Are you in a real sense in control of your thinking? 

I. Do you know how to test your thinking?

J. Do you have any conscious standards of for determining when you when you are thinking well and when you are not?

K. Have you ever discovered a significant problem in your thinking and changed it by a conscious act of will?

L. If anyone asked you to teach them what you have learned, thus far in your life, about thinking, would you really have any idea what that was 

what that was or how your learned it?

It would be very likely that your answer would be that you do not really know much about your thinking or about thinking in general. 

It is very important to realise that serious study of thinking, serious thinking about thinking, is rare. It is not a subject found in most colleges and universities. It is seldom found in the thinking of our culture or even in the west. How we can see however, when we think deeply and focus on our thinking we can see how is playing a role in your life you immediately come to realise just how thinking has affected how you feel, everything you want, what you are and what you want to be are affected by your thinking. When you have become persuaded that this is the case, you will see how little attention people pay to thinking.

In order for us to become skilled at thinking we must perform intellectual work. After doing intellectual work we can move on to a higher level of thinking. That is we move to thinking about thinking. That is we critique our thinking. We move to a higher level of quality of thinking. This is not achievable overnight. We do not become good thinker in a short span of time.

In order to arrive at that higher quality of thinking, we practise certain ways of thinking. These ways ill at first seem uncomfortable, difficult and challenging at times. We must examine how our minds think.

The following key ideas when applied can result in a mind that practises skilled thinking. These are some of the ways we can enhance the quality of thinking;

1. Clarify our thinking.

2. Stick to the point.

3. Question questions.

4. Be reasonable.

1. Clarify our thinking: The way we think must always be clarified. We must look out for any vague, fuzzy, unclear, formless or nebulous thinking. We must understand the real meaning of what people say. We should look at what they say on both the surface and underneath it.

In order to clarify our thinking, we should do the following:

- explain our understanding of the issue to someone else to help clarify it in your own mind

- practise summarising in our own words what others say

- then ask them if they understood us correctly

- do not agree or disagree with what anyone says until we clearly understand them

There is a pitfall that we have where we think that our own thinking is clear to us, even when it is not. But vague, ambiguous, muddled, deceptive, or misleading thinking are significant problems in human life. If we are to develop as thinkers, we must learn the art of clarifying thinking, of pinning it down, spelling it out, and giving it a specific meaning.

What we should is this. When people explain to use, we should summarise in our own words what we think they said. Then ask them if what we understood was correct. If we cannot do this to their satisfaction, then we have not understood what they have said. If they cannot summarise what we have said to our satisfaction, then they have not understood what we have said.

Strategies for Clarifying Thinking:

A. State one point at a time.

B. Elaborate on what you mean  

C. Give examples that connect your thoughts to life experiences 

D. Use analogies and metaphors to help people to connect your ideas to a variety of things that already understand  

Here are some Formats we Can Use:

• I think.....(State your main point)
• In other words....(Elaborate your main points)
• For example.....(Give an example of your main point)
• To give you an analogy ......(Give an illustration of your main point)

In order to clarify other people's thinking, Consider asking the following:

• Can you restate your point in other words, I cannot understand you?
• Can you give an example?
• Let me tell you what I understand what you to be saying. Did I understand you correctly?

2. Stick to the Point: Thinking must be relevant. When thinking is relevant it is firmly focused on the main task at hand. It selects what is germane, pertinent, and related. We must be alert for everything related to the issue a well as anything irrelevant or not connected to the issue. Anything that is not connected to the issue is set aside. There should not be anything that is immaterial, inappropriate, extraneous, and beside the point. In the event that the mind wanders away from relevancy, it must be brought back to the issue. This truly makes a difference in thinking.

Thinking must be disciplined. Undisciplined thinking sees the mind wandering away from any connection to the issue.

Hence, we must be on the lookout for fragmented, thinking that darts from logical connection to the issue. Focus is the key to sticking to the point.

Ask These Questions to Make Sure Thinking is Focused on What is Relevant;

• Am I focused on the main problem or task?
• How is this connected? How is that?
• Does my information directly relate to the problem or task?     
• Where do I need to focus my attention?
• Are we being diverted to unrelated matters?
• Am I failing to consider relevant viewpoints?
• How is your point relevant to the issue we are addressing?
• What fact are actually going to help us answer the question? What considerations should be set aside?
• Does this truly bear on the question? How does it connect?

 3. Question questions: We must be on the look out for questions. These are the questions that we ask. The ones we fail to ask. Questions must be examined on the surface and beneath them. Observe how people ask questions closely, observe when they ask questions, and when they fail to question. Look closely at the questions asked. Pay attention to the questions asked. What questions do we ask? Should we ask those questions? Examine the extent to which we are the questioner, or are simply the the ones who accept the definitions of situations given by others.

Most people are not skilled at asking questions. Most people accept the world as it is presented to them. When they do ask questions, their questions are superficial or "loaded." Their questions do not help in solving problems nor enable them in better decision making. A good thinker will constantly ask questions routinely in order to comprehend and deal effectively with the world around them. Good thinkers constantly question the status quo. Good thinkers are cognisant that things are often different from the way they are presented. Their questions penetrate images, masks, fronts, and propaganda. they use questions that make real problems explicit and discipline their thinking through those problems.When we become students of questions, we  can learn to ask powerful questions that lead them to a deeper and more fulfilling life. Questions become more basic, essential, and deep.

 Strategies for Formulating More Powerful Questions

• Whenever you do not understand something, ask a  question of clarification.
• Whenever you are dealing with a complex problem, formulate the question you are trying to answer in several different ways (being as precise as you can) util you hit upon the best solution that addresses the problem at hand.
• Whenever you plan to discuss an important issue or problem, write out in advance the most significant questions you think need to be addressed in the discussion. Be ready to change the main question, but once it is made clear , help those in the discussion stick to the question, making sure the dialogue builds toward an answer that makes sense.

Questions you can ask to disciple your thinking:

• What precise question are we trying to answer?
• Is that the best question to ask in this situation?
• Is there a more important question we should be addressing?
• Does this question capture the real issue we are facing?
• Is there a question we should answer before we attempt to answer this question?
• What information do we need to answer the question?
• What conclusions seem justified in light of the facts?
• What is our pint of view? Do we need to consider another?
• Is there another way to look at the question?
• What are some related questions we need to answer?
• What type of question in this: an economic question, a political questions, a legal question, etc?

4. Be Reasonable: We should be on the lookout for reasonable and unreasonable behaviour. These are both ours and that of others. Reasonable behaviour is where we or anyone is willing to listen to the ideas of other people, and not view themselves or ourselves as right and others as wrong. Instead, we should look to see if the views of other people have any merit. 

Whenever we think that we alone are right, we must stop and think if the views of other have any merit. We should see if we can break through our defensiveness to hear what others are saying.  

We should also be aware of unreasonableness in others. When unreasonable behaviour manifests itself in others, steps must be taken to 

We must be reasonable with the views of others. We should not be outright dismissive of the views of other people and neither should we allow other people to be dismissive of the views of others. We must make sure that we as well as everyone else is reasonable and never be unreasonable. We must breakthrough our defensiveness and listen to what others have to see we must see the merit in other peoples’ views. 

A hallmark of a critical thinker is a disposition to change one's mind and when given good reason to change. Good thinkers want to change their thinking when they discover better thinking. They can be moved by reason. Yet, comparatively few people are reasonable. Very few are willing to change their minds once set. Few are willing to suspend their beliefs to fully hear the views of those with which they disagree. How do we raise ourselves and others’. 

Strategies for becoming more reasonable:

We should set ourselves I'm not perfect I mean I make mistakes I'm often wrong. We have to see whether we have the courage to admit this during a disagreement. Saying such as, “of course, I may be wrong. You may be right”. We should practice saying this in our minds, “I may be wrong. I am often wrong, I'm willing to change my mind when given good reasons.”

Then what we should look for opportunities to change the way we think.

We should ask ourselves, “when was the last time I changed my mind because someone give me better reasons for his or her views then I had for mine? “

Realise that you are being close-minded:

a. you are unwilling to listen to someone's reasons
b. are irritated with the reasons people give to you
c. become defensive in a discussion

After you catch yourself being close-minded, analyse what was going on in your mind by completing these statements:

After you catch yourself being close-minded, analyze what was going on in your mind by completing these statements:

     a. I realize I was being close-minded in this situation because . . .
     b. The thinking I was trying to hold onto is . . .
     c. Thinking that is potentially better is . . .
     d. This thinking is better because . . .

The best thinkers are those who understand the development of thinking as a process occurring throughout many years of practice in thinking. They recognise the importance of learning about the mind, about thoughts, feelings and desires and how these functions of the mind interrelate. They are adept at taking thinking apart, and then assessing the parts when analysed. In short, they study the mind, and they apply what they learn about the mind to their own thinking in their own lives.

The extent to which any of us develops as a thinker is directly determined by the amount of time we dedicate to our development, the quality of the intellectual practice we engage in, and the depth, or lack thereof, of our commitment to becoming more reasonable, rational, successful persons.


Some of the types of thinking often gets us into trouble because we often:

• jump to conclusions
• fail to think-through implications
• lose track of their goal
• are unrealistic
• fail to notice contradictions
• accept inaccurate information
• ask vague questions
• give vague answers
• ask loaded questions
• confuse questions of different types
• think narrowly
• think illogically
• come to unreasonable conclusions

A How-To List for Dysfunctional Living

Most people have no notion of what it means to take charge of their lives. They don’t realize that the quality of their lives depends on the quality of their thinking. We all engage in numerous dysfunctional practices to avoid facing problems in our thinking. Consider the following and ask yourself how many of these dysfunctional ways of thinking you engage in:

1.     Surround yourself with people who think like you. Then no one will criticize you.
 

2.     Don’t question your relationships. You then can avoid dealing with problems within them.

3.     If critiqued by a friend or lover, look sad and dejected and say, “I thought you were my friend!” or “I thought you loved me!”
 

4.     When you do something unreasonable, always be ready with an excuse. Then you won’t have to take responsibility. If you can’t think of an excuse, look sorry and say, “I can’t help how I am!”
 

5.     Focus on the negative side of life. Then you can make yourself miserable and blame it on others.

6.     Blame others for your mistakes. Then you won’t have to feel responsible for your mistakes. Nor will you have to do anything about them.
 

7.     Verbally attack those who criticize you. Then you don’t have to bother listening to what they say.
 

8.     Go along with the groups you are in. Then you won’t have to figure out anything for yourself.
 

9.     Act out when you don’t get what you want. If questioned, look indignant and say, “I’m just an emotional person. At least I don’t keep my feelings bottled up!”
 

10. Focus on getting what you want. If questioned, say, “If I don’t look out for number one, who will?”

Public Bus Transport.

Public transport is a necessity for many people. Not everyone can afford a car. Taxis are costly lot to hire. Hire services like Grab and its equivalents are still costly. Light rail transit or mass rail transit need shuttle bus services to get people to a station, except for those who can travel by car and can pay a lot to park their cars at the station while they use the LRT or MRT trains. Using a car comes with tax an, insurance and fuel costs which makes ownership of a car best suited to those who can afford to own and maintain them, As such, public bus services must be provided and subsidised if need be. 

If we examine who are the people who use public bus services, we will see an interesting cross section of society. Most of the users are students, the elderly, housewives, and low wage workers. These are often folk who cannot afford a car. Even affluent people or ordinary clerical workers who can afford a car, too use the public bus service as a way to reduce the costs inherent in using a car. 

However, the public bus service is cut to some areas such as travelling to the capital city because of a fall in passengers. The fall in passengers is attributable to affluent people moving into a residential area and who happen to own cars. As poorer people sell their houses to the rich and move out of a residential area, there is a fall in he users of the public bus system. 

Bus companies who provide services based on economic considerations and are not subsidised cut their services and as result force people who cannot afford cars hve to use the LRT and MRT systems with the attendant delays in getting to a LRT or MRT station. Is this fair? Is this the right thing to do?

My area has not been serviced to KL for the past few years. The section of society I mentioned who use the public bus service now suffer. The LRT and MRT services do not always cover all the areas in KL. When one reaches a LRT or MRT station and the destination is far away, then another bus or a taxi must be used. This is causing great inconvenience.

 Therefore, what is needed now is for the authorities to review the routes the public bus service takes and if need be subsidise uneconomic routes.

Universities should accept an Equal number of Male and Female students. What is your opinion?

In my opinion, universities should accept an equal number of male and female students. The first reason I give for this is the necessity for the economic development and international business of a country. In order to generate economic development, you need a lot of tertiary qualified workers. Not all male students would want to pursue tertiary qualifications that will qualify them to work in business and industry. Some of them may want to pursue courses in the Liberal Arts or anthropology which are unsuitable for the requirements of business and industry. By permitting an equal number of women into universities the human resource needs in business and industry are addressed. The acceptance of an equal number of male and female students will increase the economic development of a country and thus the increase in the earnings of working people and so an increase in the affluence of a country.

Secondly, by allowing an equal number of women and men into universities we can address the issue of gender equality. The equality of women in all spheres is an important aspect in this enlightened age. By having tertiary education women will become more empowered and more independent. By permitting an equal number of male and female students the perception will be that women are equal to men. There is a notion of a so-called “Glass Ceiling” among women who feel that there is an invisible barrier beyond which they cannot go through in life. By permitting an equal number of women into universities the concept of the “Glass Ceiling” will be erased from the minds of women. They will cease to think that university education as predominantly for men.

Thirdly, by accepting an equal number of male and female students in university, there will be a pool of ideas from the student’s course projects. Women will be given the opportunity to express their ideas and views. This will enrich the knowledge of both genders. Women will have the opportunity to contribute actively to make course projects more successful. There is the added effect of raising the maturity of both genders when they work together. Male and female students will have a better understanding of the opposite gender. This will create the awareness of the needs and emotions of the opposite gender.

To conclude, universities should accept an equal number of male and female students.This will address gender imbalance at the workplace. It will remove the so-called 'glass ceiling', and empower women. It will increase the pool of talent at the workplace.

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Please give comments on my posts. Thank you. 

Problems and Problem Solving: Problem Solving Guidelines.Part 3.

When an initiative is launched to solve a problem, guidelines must be drawn in order to determine the sequence of efforts to resolve a problem.    

I.Problem Exploration:

a. An investigation into the nature of the problem is conducted;

b. The problem is broken down into sub-problems;

c. The terms are defined;

d. The nature of the problem is defined- is the problem sociological, political, economic, business, personal, technological, historical or geopolitical.

e. Research is conducted to verify if the problem has been encountered n the past and if so, what steps were undertaken to resolve it.

1. State the Problem:

A. State what the problem is: Are there multiple aspects to the problem? If so what are they? A written description of the problem written and as clearly as possible. The statement could begin with the problem as given. The problem statement could be put in quotation marks to show how it was received. However, the nature of the problem should always be stated in you own words and in any verbal clothing given by others to you. That means so not use the words they used to describe the problem but your own. Anything that the problem is not must be clearly stated. In this way everything that is irrelevant is filtered out and you gave clarified the problem.

B. Restate the Problem: The problem should be restated with different words or in any different way. This is done in order to filter out any confusing or verbal maps of the problem.

C. State the problem more generally, broadly, abstractly or philosophically: In this way we enable ourselves to ascertain if the wording of the problem is a mere statement of a more general problem. Oftentimes, general terms allow us to visualise the problem in entirely different terms and therefore suggest solutions that otherwise would not been thought of.

2. Clarify the problem: 

A. Define the key terms of the problem: Keep repeating the process of defining and redefining the problem in more and more general or specific ways. In this way the problem is broken down or decomposed into attributes, components, and general features. Synonyms can be used. The moving from genus to species and species to genus can also be utilised. The consequence or result of this that some possible solutions can be realised. Any ambiguity or uncertainty can be clarified. It is very often that problems are presented to us are unclear in their original form. Terms such as; 

Improve the magazine, 

Clear the path, 

Develop a  new computer system or 

Develop a new product,

These are all unclear assignments. They do not specify in detail what needs to be done. What improvement is needed? , what path needs to be cleared?, what new system is to be organised? and  what new product is to be developed? Does this mean choose better articles, change the typefaces and layout, get classier advertisers, get a bigger circulation, or what? Likewise, where is the path? what obstacles are encumbering it? 

What kind of new computer system is needed? what must this new computer system do? where is the new computer system to be installed ? What is this new product line? 

who are the potential customers? what are the raw materials needed?

B. Articulate the assumptions being made about the problem and describe the way a solution would have to work: Make a conscious list of all assumptions that can be identified . Hence, this articulation step must be made to identify any assumptions. This articulation step in the problem-solving procedure involves the conscious listing of all assumptions that can be identified. The listing is done without prejudice or judgment or hostility. Just list as many as can be thought of. It is especially important when listing assumptions to list the extremely obvious ones, because often it is those that later turn out to be alterable. Examine these assumptions to discover if they are necessary, not necessary, or uncertain as to their necessity. Many assumptions are quite necessary, of course. In the problem, develop a better way to destroy kidney stones, one obvious and necessary assumption is that the patient should be alive after the procedure. But often assumptions turn out to be made for no good reason--that is they are not necessary assumptions. These can be challenged and new routes to success can then be discovered. 

C. Obtain needed information: Research into past approaches to the problem or to similar problems should be made as these will help in getting new ideas as well as gaining an understanding of the nature and environment of the problem itself. If the problem is to improve self-stick brackets, you might do some research into how glues work. 

3. Explain the Problem.

A. Discuss the problem with someone else:

The problem can be discussed carefully with another person, while at the same time listening to your own explanation. The act of discussing has two important features; firstly, solutions can come from the mind and deliberations of another person. Discussion has two important features. Firstly, it is possible discussion cold lead to a solution being found from another person. By discussing information, suggestions, and ideas can be obtained, even if the information, suggestions and ideas have got no bearing on the problem or if they are unworkable., they can be a valuable inspiration. This is because they will provide a  new direction or approach to the problem or suggest something practical. So even without the other person understanding the problem technically, emotionally, intellectually, artistically, or whatever, there is a gain of a  valuable insight by discussing it and by hearing a response.

Secondly, by discussing the problem with someone allows one to see what one really thinks. Philosophers and writing theorists have long noted that people think and work out ideas as they talk. We do not really know what we think until we consciously verbalise it. Francis Bacon noted that one value of friendship was to have someone to talk to so that you can see how your ideas look when they are turned into words. Some people have reported remarkable insights just by talking to their pets, where no intellectual feedback from the "listener" was possible. So, when we discuss our problem or idea, we should listen to ourselves as well as to the other person.

We should explain why the problem is a problem. What are its negative or undesirable features? Again, a couple of functions here. One, by explaining why the problem is problematic, you discover more about its nature and whether it really is a problem. James Adams remarks that there have been a lot of solutions to problems that didn't exist. So, this explanation phase allows you to discover just whether a problem is real.

Next, by explaining in detail the negatives of the problem, a set of more specific targets can be identified, thus better lending themselves to being solved.

For example, first statement: Here at the amusement park, our problem is that rides are expensive and people get tired of them. Why is this a problem? Because we have to replace the rides so people will continue to come to the park. The negatives are that we have to (1) keep tearing the ride down, (2) building a new ride, (3) spending a lot of money, (4) disturbing the amusement park with major construction, (5) advertising the new ride, etc.

This statement allows the clarification of possible goals, like building a ride people won't tire of, figuring out a way to build rides quickly and cheaply, and so forth.

B. Look at the problem from different viewpoints:  How would different people look at it? (What are the thoughts of those who cause it, those who suffer from it, those who have to fix it, those who have to pay for it, etc.?) Remember that your view of reality, as an intelligent, concerned, conscientious, middle class person, is only one view. By imaginatively taking on the viewpoints of various other people affected by a particular problem, you can sometimes discover solutions that you as yourself would never think of.

For example, let's say your assignment is to reduce litter on the beaches. One way to proceed would be to write out the viewpoints of various people. How do the people doing the littering view the situation? Are they thinking, "I like littering?" Or are they thinking, "I'd throw this in a can, but there isn't one nearby, so I'll toss it on the ground," or "I see that can nearby, but it smells so I don't want to go near it"? What about the person who has to pick up the trash? What are his thoughts? What about the taxpayers, or the beachgoers?

Again, suppose your job is to improve the juvenile justice system. Imagine that you are, in turn, the juvenile offender, the parents, the victim, the sheriff or arresting officer, the head of Juvenile Hall, the judge, a man on the street, and so forth. By constructing these different viewpoints, you will be able to generate solutions that meet some of the cynical, prejudiced, or even thoughtful attitudes of the various parties.

Another example. We, as users of medical services, often complain about the poor service, lack of knowledge, and high costs. What does the doctor think? He's probably worrying about getting sued. Addressing his concerns as well as our own will be the most likely way to improve the situation, rather than, say, passing new laws based only upon our own viewpoint.

The importance of being able to see different sides or angles has been reinforced in folk wisdom worldwide. The French have a saying, for example, "To know all is to forgive all." The American Indians have the saying, "Don't criticise your neighbour until you have walked a mile in his moccasins." The better you become at understanding where others "are coming from," the better you'll become at choosing solutions that will be acceptable and effective for all involved.

C. Ask a series of clarifying why: By asking "why" of every statement of the problem, possible solution, or identified goal, clearer definitions are made. Asking why can serve a purpose similar to that of broadening the definition of the problem, and can lead to new ways of looking at the problem and at possible solutions.

Example problem: Let's make computers smaller and lightweight and portable. Why? So, people can carry them around? Why do we want people to carry them around? So, they can take them on trips with them and use them, say in hotels. Why do we want them to use them on trips and in hotels? So, they can make efficient use of their extra time when traveling. (Possibility: put computers in hotel rooms for guests to use.)

Example problem: We need a better way to kill mice. Why? Because we are overrun by mice and they are bothering us. Why are we overrun? Because there is food all over. Maybe we should get rid of the food. Or, maybe we should redefine the problem into, we need a better way to keep mice from bothering us. This may suggest a different solution from that of killing them, like driving them away, keeping them out of the house in the first place, etc.

Is the problem really a symptom or result of another problem? Is there a problem behind the "problem"?

For example, the "problem" of low-quality cars may really be only a symptom, with the real problem behind it quite different, like poor management, low quality parts and materials, old machinery, careless labor, or whatever. A search for the causes of a problem often reveals one or more underlying problems which need to be solved first or which, when solved, will solve the originally identified problem.

4. Put the Problem in Context.

A. What is the history of the problem? Knowing where it came from can help focus your efforts toward a solution to try or away from a solution not to try. If a particular solution has been tried already and met with a sensational disaster, you might not want to try it first again. The problem solvers who caught Typhoid Mary eventually noticed that various families' problems with typhoid began just after Mary began to work for them.

B. What is the problem environment? What are the surrounding contexts? Are there associative factors that helped cause or perpetuate the problem? Have there been similar problems and solutions that may be useful in solving this one?

An understanding of contributing or perpetuating factors will help you to take steps to prevent a problem from coming right back once you solve it. Similarly, studying how similar or analogous problems have been solved may lead you to a shortcut solution to this one.

C. List the constraints of the problem: What limitations are imposed, what is required, what must be observed in solving the problem? This is pretty straightforward. Constraints are givens that must be followed--a budget you cannot exceed, legal or contractual requirements that must be met and so on.

For example, if your problem is to develop a new American sports car, one constraint is that it must meet federal air pollution standards. If your problem is to make an educational tour more affordable for students, one probable constraint is that the tour company can't go broke in the process.

Constraints are simply requirements to keep in mind, part of the problem's basic dimensions. Writing them down helps to keep them in the foreground as you work toward solutions. And, of course, occasionally the identified constraints turn out, upon listing and examination, not to be necessary after all. They can be eliminated or worked around.

II. Goal Establishment.

1. Consider Ideal Goals. We too often set our goals as the solving of the immediate problem or the minimum solution rather than considering how we would like reality to be ideally.

For example, if Jane always criticizes everything I say, I could set as my goal that she would stop criticizing me. But what would my ideal goal be? That not only would she stop criticizing me, but she would begin to support and encourage me, and even become a partner in my efforts. Instead of the goal of reducing pollution on the beach, or even stopping it, why not a goal of an improved ecology, where the beach will be cleaner than ever before?

2. Establish Practical Goals: What are the goals to be achieved that would make this problem be declared solved? The listing of definite and precise goals is useful in problem solving because the attempts at solution can then be measured against the goals to see how much progress is being made.

Example problem: Unemployment is too high in inner city America. We want to reduce it. What will the solution look like? Goal: Reduce unemployment for both males and females over eighteen to five percent or less within the next year.

Note that setting up goals (1) helps to clarify the direction to take in solving the problem and (2) gives you something definite to aim at. What will the solution be like? That is, what will occur as a result of the solution? Describe the world as it will be after the solution is implemented.

In our unemployment example above, we could say the solution will involve setting up a permanent job finding service that will continue to operate after the goal is met, to ensure that unemployment (the problem) doesn't return later on. The solution might also include educational services to train workers or to train people in job finding strategies (like looking in the paper, going to job sites, and so forth).

Note that the description of the solution here can be pretty vague and dreamy if necessary, because sometimes you will have only an uncertain notion of what that solution will ultimately be. But try to be as specific as possible. If your problem is an unhappy marriage or love relationship, you could say that your goal is "a happy relationship," but more progress toward the goal will be probable if you can be more specific, such as, "stop yelling at each other," "become more affectionate," "do more things together," and so forth.

III. Idea Generation:

1. Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions.

A. Read, research, think, ask questions, discuss: Look for ideas and solutions. Begin with a period of information gathering and mental stimulation. Knowledge is power. Get facts. Learn as much as you can about the problem.

For example, suppose you are faced with the task of making a more durable conveyor belt. You might think on your own about using stronger materials, like Kevlar or steel reinforcing, but a little research would reveal how many other people have solved the same problem, and you might happen upon the idea of the Mobius strip. Here, you simply rotate one end of the belt half a turn before connecting the two ends of the belt together. This produces a belt with only one side, with twice the life of an ordinarily made belt. It's a brilliant idea that you might never come across unless you did a little research.

B. Use idea generation techniques: (brainstorming, forced relationships, random stimulation, and so on). Generate a large number of ideas of all kinds so that you'll have a good selection to choose from, adapt, or stimulate other ideas. Don't worry about whether the ideas are practical or wild at this point. As we will continue to see throughout the class, some wild ideas turn out to be quite practical. Just one example: Problem: How to inhibit corrosion and increase electrical contact on electronic plugs. Solution: plate them with gold--an excellent corrosion inhibitor and conductor. That's what's often done. This "wild" solution became practical because gold can be plated on very thin, reducing the cost to something very reasonable.

C. Allow time to incubate during various phases of idea generation. The major cycle of creativity that has long been identified is preparation (initial thought, research, study, work), incubation (time to let the unconscious work), insight (the flash of recognition of a solution path--the eureka experience), implementation (working out the solution), and evaluation.

Small problems will require only a short period of incubation. Difficult problems will require longer periods. Some people require longer periods than other people. The main thing is to remember the cycle of work, incubate, work, incubate. The eureka flashes do not come without previous periods of preparation and hard thinking. In the mythology of genius, we often see the wizard sitting around when the flash suddenly comes to him. And that's often what happens--the insight comes during a period of relaxation. But what's left out is that same genius' long months of very hard work.

Do allow time for incubation, though. When you have worked a long time and are up against a wall, leave the problem and go out and do something relaxing. Then return to the problem. The idea of "sleeping on it" is excellent.

IV. Idea Selection:

1. Evaluate the Possibilities: Evaluate the collection of ideas and possible solutions and approaches. What possible solutions, either individually or in conjunction with each other, will solve this problem? An important thing to remember here is not to get fixated on the single solution idea. You may want to adopt two or three separate solution paths at the same time--kind of like the triple antibiotic ointment approach. You might also want to set up "Plan B," a possible solution approach that can be implemented if your main plan does not work. So, in your evaluation, don't focus on choosing just one solution and tossing the others away.

When you evaluate, you want to find the solution that will be the most effective (work best), efficient (cost the least, whether in terms of money, time, emotions, or whatever), and have the fewest drawbacks or side effects.

2. Choose the Solution(s):

A. Select one or more solutions to try: In the evaluation state above, you should establish some rank ordering. Choose from among those near the top of the list. Note that (as we will find later on in decision analysis), the very top ranked solution is not always the one to get chosen for implementation. Subjective, emotional factors, sudden changes, peculiar circumstances, the desire for beneficial side effects not directly related to the solution, intuitive feeling, and so forth, often shift the choice to something ranked below number one or two.

It's just like hiring someone or marrying someone. The person who looks best on paper may not "feel" right, and you may have a preference for someone further down the so-called objective list.

B. Allow others to see and criticize your selected solution and to make suggestions for improvements or even alternatives: The best way to turn your idea light bulb into a chandelier or floodlight is to let other people comment on it. This takes a certain amount of ego strength, since only intermediate friends will say how good the idea is. Strangers and close friends will quickly point out absurdities and weaknesses. But that's good, because you'll have a chance to improve your solution idea before attempting to implement it.

You have to walk a narrow path here. Don't be swayed too easily by criticism to change an idea that you are confident is really good; after all, the typical person is not a creative visionary and will be controlled by the prejudices of ordinariness. You can expect resistance to good new ideas. On the other hand, don't be so in love with your idea that you cannot see the legitimacy of criticisms that point our genuine weaknesses. And always be willing to incorporate new ideas and improvements from fresh minds looking at the problem and solution from a different perspective.

V. Implementation

1. Try out the solution(s). Experiment, test. "Do it, fix it, try it." "Ready, fire, aim." The real test of an idea is to try it out. The key concept here is action. Get going and begin the solution. Once you choose a solution path, get to work on it. Don't worry if objections or problems remain. Start working. Samuel Johnson noted that if all possible objections to a proposal must first be overcome, nothing would ever be attempted. And remember to give your solution sufficient time to work. Too hasty an abandonment of a solution or solution path is as common a problem as too obsessive a commitment to a particular solution path. A solution may take weeks or months (or years) to work, so use judgment in determining how long to wait before abandoning the choice.

2. Make adjustments or changes as needed during implementation. Remain flexible in this application phase. Practically every solution needs some modification in the process of being put into effect. Blueprints are changed, scripts are rewritten, your parenting methodology is adjusted. Don't expect that your solution will be exactly as you originally proposed. Remember that the goal is to solve the problem, not mindlessly to implement the solution exactly as proposed.

VI. Evaluation

1. Investigate to determine whether the solution(s) worked, and to what extent. Do modifications need to be made? Do other solutions need to be selected and tried? Is a different approach needed? One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the lack of evaluation of the implemented solution. Too often in the past, once a solution has been chosen and implemented, people have wandered off, assuming that the problem was solved and everything was fine. But the solution may not have worked or not worked completely, or it may have caused other problems in the process. Staying around long enough to evaluate the solution's effectiveness, then, is an important part of problem solving.

2. Remember that many solutions are better described as partially successful or partially unsuccessful, rather than as an either/or in a success/failure division. If you propose a solution that reduces drug addiction by even ten percent, your solution is a good one, even though it didn't work for the other ninety percent of cases. In many cases, an incomplete remedy is better than none at all. 

Links:

1.https://theenglish-teacher.blogspot.com/2019/07/problems-and-problem-solving-what-is_21.html

2. https://theenglish-teacher.blogspot.com/2019/07/problems-and-problem-solving-what-is.html